Gestalt
Psychology Challenges Behaviorism
Founded
by Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Gestalt psychology surfaced as a
theoretical
school in Germany early in the 20th century.Gestalt psychology
was
based on the belief that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
(Gestalt
is German for"form" or "shape"). An example of this
fundamental
principle
is provided by the phi phenomenon, first described by Wertheimer
(1912)
. The phi phenomenon is the illusion of movement created by
presenting
visual stimuli in rapid succession. For example, movies and TV
consist
of separate still pictures projected rapidly one after the other.
Although
we see smooth motion, in reality the "moving" objects merely take
a
slightly different position in successive frames. The same principle is
illustrated
by electric signs, such as those on movie marquees or at road
construction
sites (see the adjacent photo). The bulbs going on and off in
turn,
with the appropriate timing, give the impression of motion. Of
course,
nothing in the sign really moves. The elements (the bulbs) are
stationary.
Working as a whole, however, they have a property (motion) that
isn't
evident in any of the parts. Some of the other perceptual phenomena
identified
by the Gestalt psychologists are described in Chapter 4.
Gestalt
psychology's emergence in 1912 was in part a reaction against
structuralism,
an influential school of thought in Germany at the time.
Obviously,
the structuralists' interest in breaking conscious experience
into
its component parts seemed ill advised in light of the Gestalt
theorists'
demonstration that the whole can be much greater than the sum of
its
parts. Nazi persecutions in Germany eventually forced the leading
Gestalt
theorists; Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler; to move to
the
United States, where they attacked the theoretical edifice of
behaviorism.
They took issue with the behaviorists on two counts.
First,they
saw the behaviorists' attempt to analyze behavior into
stimulus-response
bonds as another ill-fated effort to carve the whole into
its
parts. Second,they felt that psychology should continue to study
conscious
experience rather than shift its focus to observable behavior.
Like
structuralism and functionalism (to which it is compared in Table
1.1),
Gestalt psychology had a limited life span. At its peak, it was an
active
combatant in psychology's theoretical wars and was responsible for
some
major advances in the study of perception, problem solving, and social
behavior.
However, after its relocation in North America, the Gestalt
movement
was unable to attract a large second generation of loyalists
(Ash,1985).
Thus, it gradually faded as an important school of thought.
However,
the Gestalt school left its mark on the field, as it contributed
to
the eventual emergence of two contemporary theoretical perspectives in
psychology:
humanism and cognitive psychology. We'll discuss these
perspectives
later, after we look at the highly influential ideas of
Sigmund
Freud and B. F. Skinner.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Overview
of Three Early Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology
1. Perspective: Structuralism
o Its Influential Period: (1875-1930s)
o Principal Contributors: Wilhelm Wundt Edward Titchener
o Subject Matter: Structure of consciousness
o Basic Premise: The content of conscious experience can be
analyzed into its basic elements.
2. Perspective: Functionalism
o Its Influential Period: (1890-1930s)
o Principal Contributors: William James G. Stanley Hall James
McKeen Cattell
o Subject Matter: Functions of consciousness
o Basic Premise: The adaptive purposes of conscious experience are
more important than its structure.
3. Perspective: Gestalt psychology
o Its Influential Period: (1912-1940s)
o Principal Contributors: Max Wertheimer Kurt Koffka Wolfgang
Kohler
o Subject Matter: Organization of consciousness
o Basic Premise: Conscious experiences and perceptions are more
than the sum of their parts.
click HERE to return to homepage